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www.ich.ucl.ac.uk/clinical_information/clinical_guidelines/cmg_guideline_00068

GUIDELINES ON BRONCHIOLITIS:
www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=9528&nbr=5078&ss=15
• respiratory physiotherapy is not recommended for children with bronchiolitis

GUIDELINES FOR PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN AND STRESS IN THE NEONATE
www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?ss=15&doc_id=2597&nbr=1823

GUIDELINES ON INHALERS FOR CHILDREN UNDER 5 YEARS
www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/NiceINHALERguidance.pdf

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www.library.nhs.uk/respiratory/ViewResource.aspx?resID=30114&tabID=288

AARC GUIDELINES (2002) Selection of an oxygen delivery device for neonatal and
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www.rcjournal.com/contents/09.04/09.04.1100.pdf

GUIDELINES ON ECMO IN CHILDREN:
www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/ip/IPG038guidance.pdf

BTS GUIDELINES FOR HOME OXYGEN IN CHILDREN:
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• importance of thorough investigation of ‘idiopathic’ diagnoses, in this case ‘bronchiectasis’

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• preoperative advice on breathing and mobility leads to more rapid recovery

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• neonates show improved SaO2 with closed compared to open suction

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• the 'big three' causes of chronic cough in adults (asthma, post-nasal drip and gastroesophageal reflux) are less common in children,
• anti-cough drugs e.g. codeine,
• anti-histamines and steroids are less helpful or contraindicated in children.

Chappell SE (2001) A comparison of surfactant delivery with conventional mechanical ventilation and partial liquid ventilation in meconium aspiration injury. Respir Med, 95, 7, 612-17

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• beneficial effects of continuous skin-to-skin contact between mothers and premature infants

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• variable flow CPAP leads to greater lung recruitment than continuous flow

Curley MAQ et al (2000) The effects of early and repeated prone positioning in pediatric patients with acute lung injury. Chest, 118, 156-63

Das DA, Grimmer KA, Sparnon AL (2005) The efficacy of playing a virtual reality game in modulating pain for children with acute burn injuries. BMC Pediatrics, 5, 1
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• virtual reality games are useful for distressing procedures

Delgado A, Chou KJ, Silver EJ (2003) Nebulizers vs metered-dose inhalers with spacers for bronchodilator therapy to treat wheezing in children aged 2 to 24 months. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 157, 76-80
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12517199&dopt=Abstract
• metered-dose inhalers with spacers may be as efficacious as nebulizers for wheezing in children aged 2 years or younger.

Deuber C, Terhaar M (2011) Hyperoxia in very preterm infants: a systematic review of the literature. J Perinat Neonat Nurs, 25, 3, 268-74

Dhouieb E (2000) Atelectasis unplugged. ACPRC Journal, 33, 34.
• persistent atelectasis caused by mucus plugging shows a 69% improvement by using lavage, either blind or via bronchoscopy

Diehl-Jones WL, Askin DF (2004) Nutritional modulation of neonatal outcomes. AACN Clinical Issues, 15, 83-96
• functional immaturity of the gut requires nutritional therapy.

Drendel AL, Brousseau DC, Gorelick MH (2006) Pain assessment for pediatric patients in the emergency department. Pediatrics, 117, 5, 1511-8
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16651304?dopt=Abstract
• infants and toddlers are at particular risk for not having their pain documented, with a significant association between pain score documentation and the use of any analgesic

Drysdale SB (2011) Lung function prior to viral lower respiratory tract infections in prematurely born infants. Thorax, 66, 468-473
thorax.bmj.com/content/66/6/468.abstract
• diminished premorbid lung function may predispose prematurely born infants to severe viral LRTIs in infancy.

Duff AJA, Gaskell SL, Jacobs K, Houghton JM (2012) Management of distressing procedures in children and young people: time to adhere to the guidelines. Arch Dis Child, 97, 1-4

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• suction can increase intracranial pressure

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• if mucus plugging is causing atelectasis, instilled rhDNase may be beneficial

Eber E (1997) Bronchoalveolar lavage in children. Eur Resp Mon, 5, 136-61

Elgellab A et al (2001) Effects of nasal continuous positive airway pressure on breathing in mature newborn infants. Int Care Med, 27, 1782-7
• CPAP improves breathing pattern in premature infants with respiratory failure

Ellen MD, Kain ZN (2001) The management of preoperative anxiety in children. Anesth Analg, 93, 98-105

Fisher D (2010) Opioid tapering in children. AACN Adv Crit Care, 21(2):139-145

Frerichs I et al (2004) Distribution of lung ventilation in spontaneously breathing neonates lying in different body positions. Int Care Med, 29, 787-94-
www.springerlink.com/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=149dc4bf6f114848a00721119b2837c9&referrer=parent&backto=issue,20,37;journal,28,126;browsepublicationsresults,950,2444
• breathing pattern and posture significantly effects the spatial distribution of lung ventilation in spontaneously breathing neonates

Frontini MG (2004) Low birth weight and longitudinal trends of cardiovascular risk factor variables from childhood to adolescence. BMC Pediatrics 2004, 4, 22
www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2431/4/22
• low birth weight is associated with cardiovascular and related diseases in later life

Galinkin JL (2002) Lidocaine iontophoresis versus eutectic mixture of local anesthetics for IV placement in children. Anesth Analges, 94, 1482-8

Galvis (1994) Bedside management of lung collapse in children on mechanical ventilation: saline lavage/simulated cough technique. Ped Pulmonol, 17, 326-30.
www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112132408/ABSTRACT
• 4-step approach including deep instillation of 0.25-0.5 ml saline

Ganesan V, Malbon S, Jones PW (2002) Blood gas monitoring in very low birth weight infants receiving respiratory support. J Clin Excellence, 4, 403-10
• blood gas monitoring is best done non-invasively

Garner SS, Wiest DB, Bradley JW (2002) Two administration methods for inhaled salbutamol in intubated patients. Arch Dis Child, 87, 49-53
adc.bmj.com/content/87/1/49.full?sid=ae5dffce-d7cf-4006-98ce-dd5655e7feda

Gilbert M (1999) Assessing the need for endotracheal suction. Paed Nurs, 11, 1, 12-17
• indications for suction

Goldstein (1989) The role of in-line manometers in minimizing peak and mean airway pressure in newborn infants. Respir Care, 34, 23-7.

Gray L, Miller LW, Philipp BL (2002) Breastfeeding is analgesic in healthy newborns. Pediatrics, 109, 4, 590

Grüber C, Lehmann C, Weiss C, Niggemann B (2012) Somatoform respiratory disorders in children and adolescents—proposals for a practical approach to definition and classification. Pediatric Pulmonology, 47, 199–205. doi: 10.1002/ppul.21533

Hammer J (2001) Nasal CPAP in preterm infants – does it work and how? Int Care Med, 27, 1689-91
• useful overview of mechanism of CPAP in preterm infants

Healy F, Hanna BD, Zinman R (2012) Pulmonary complications of congenital heart disease. Paed Respir Rev, 13, 1, 10-15

Heikkinen T (2002) Nasal swab versus nasopharyngeal aspirate for isolation of respiratory viruses. Clin Microbiol, 40, 4337-9

Herbert S (2005) Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after mild to moderate pediatric trauma. J Trauma-Injury Inf Crit Care, 58, 353-63
www.jtrauma.com/pt/re/jtrauma/abstract.00005373-200502000-00021.htm;jsessionid=CO5EKlmYRMKPcbJGGy72sAD2B6RZWJFeF315LiHLGi1QDiEb20Jw!1707623050!-949856031!9001!-1
• the presence of PTSD symptoms in children after traumatic injury is very high and often not recognised

Hjalmarson O, Sandberg K (2002) Abnormal lung function in healthy preterm infants. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 165, 83-7
• preterm birth affects alveoli and elastic tissue in lungs

Ho M-Y, Yen Y-H, Hsieh M-C (2003) Early versus late nutrition support in premature neonates with RDS. Nutrition, 19, 257-60
• importance of early nutrition

Holbrook TL (2005) Long-term posttraumatic stress disorder persists after major trauma in adolescents. J Trauma-Injury Inf Crit Care, 58, 764-71
www.jtrauma.com/pt/re/jtrauma/abstract.00005373-200504000-00016.htm;jsessionid=CO5EKlmYRMKPcbJGGy72sAD2B6RZWJFeF315LiHLGi1QDiEb20Jw!1707623050!-949856031!9001!-1
• high rates of long-term PTSD persist after major trauma in adolescents

Hsu LL, Batts BK, Rau JL (2005) Positive Expiratory Pressure Device acceptance in hospitalized children with sickle cell disease is comparable to incentive spirometry. Respir Care, 50, 5, 624-7
www.rcjournal.com/contents/05.05/05.05.0624.pdf
• PEP has the same positive outcomes as incentive spirometry

Jones P (2012) Bradycardia during critical care intubation: mechanisms, significance and atropine. Arch Dis Child, 97, 139-144

Kapur N, Masters IB, Morris PS (2012) Defining pulmonary exacerbation in children with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. Pediatr Pulmonol, 47, 1, 68–75
• exacerbation can be identified by a standardised assessment of clinical features and systemic markers

Kendall JM (2001) Multicentre randomised controlled trial of nasal diamorphine for analgesia in children and teenagers with clinical fractures. BMJ, 322, 261-5

Kuusela A-L (2000) Stress-induced gastric findings in critically ill newborn infants. Int Care Med, 26, 1501-6

Ievers-Landis CE (2007) Pediatric sleep apnea: implications of the epidemic of childhood overweight. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 175, 436-41
ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/175/5/436
• sleep apnoea affects 2-3% of middle-school children, up to 13% of children aged 3 to 6 years and up fourfold higher in vulnerable populations, such as those born preterm or poor

Jacobson B (1998) Obstetric care and proneness of offspring to suicide as adults. BMJ, 317, 1346-9

Jamjoom AAB (2010) Traumatic brain injury in children. Br J Hosp Med, 71, 3, 138-40

Klig JE (2003) Lower respiratory infections in children. Curr Op Ped, 15, 121-6
• lower respiratory infections are the most common cause of illness and death in children

Korkeila J (2010) Childhood adversities as predictors of incident coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease. Heart, 96, 4, 298-303
heart.bmj.com/content/96/4/298.abstract
• childhood adversities are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease

Ljungberg H, Gustafsson PM (2004) Infant lung function testing. Breathe, 1, 1, 13-23

Long T (1995) A critical appraisal of positioning infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Phys Occ Ther Peds, 15, 3, 17-29

Lundstroem KE (2001) Worsening respiratory failure in the newborn: guidelines and therapeutic options. Curr Paediatr, 11, 177-80

Main E (2006) Prone positioning does not reduce the ventilation period or mortality in pediatric acute lung injury. Austr J Physiother, 52, 63

Mallory MD (2003) Bronchiolitis management preferences and the influence of pulse oximetry and respiratory rate on the decision to admit. Pediatrics, 111, 1, e45-e51

Mallory D, Shay DK, Garrett J et al (2003) Bronchiolitis management preferences and the influence of pulse oximetry and respiratory rate on the decision to admit. Pediatrics, 111, e45-e51

Mandelberg A, Amirav I (2010) Hypertonic saline or high-volume normal saline for viral bronchiolitis. Pediatr Pulmonol, 45, 36-40

Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, Beyers N, Donald PR, Starke JR (2006) Childhood pulmonary tuberculosis: old wisdom and new challenges. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 173,1078–1090
ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/173/10/1078?ijkey=3346238dd669d1f850b766c500ed764f05d8dd59&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha
• diagnosis, treatment, drug resistance and concomitant HIV infection

Martinón-Torres F (2002) Heliox therapy in infants with acute bronchiolitis. Pediatrics, 109, 68-73

Maurice SC, O'Donnell JJ, Beattie TF (2002) Emergency analgesia in the paediatric population. Part I Current practice and perspectives. Emerg Med J, 19, 4-7
• part 1 of four articles on current management of children’s pain

McCann ME (2001) The management of preoperative anxiety in children. Anesth Analg, 93, 98-105

McKearnan KA, Kieckhefer GM, Engel JM, Jensen MP, Labyak S (2004) Pain in children with cerebral palsy. J Neuroscience Nurs.
www.medscape.com/viewarticle/491005
• review of the prevalence and causes of pain in children with CP

Miske LJ, Hickey EM, Kolb SM (2004) Use of the mechanical in-exsufflator in pediatric patients with neuromuscular disease and impaired cough. Chest, 125, 4, 1406–12.
• insufflator-exsufflator has shown reduced pneumonia and atelectasis

Misra S, Mahajan PV, Chen X (2008 Safety of procedural sedation and analgesia in children less than 2 years of age in a pediatric emergency department. Int J Emerg Med, 1, 3, 179-182
www.springerlink.com/content/2v2q153557p1m741/fulltext.html
• adequate analgesia is safe in young children

Morrison L, Ball R, Conway SP, Brownlee KG (2003) Airway resistance measurements in children with cystic fibrosis. Physiother, 89, 629-36
• an alternative for young children and those too breathless to produce reliable results with spirometry

Morrow BM, Futter MJ, Argent AC (2006) Paediatric nonbronchoscopic bronchoalveolar lavage. SA Journal Physiother, 62, 1, 28-31
• guidelines for obtaining an effective specimen

Morrow B, Futter M, Argent A (2008) A recruitment manoeuvre performed after endotracheal suction does not increase dynamic compliance in ventilated paediatric patients: a randomised controlled trial. Austr J Physiother, 53, 3, 163–9
ajp.physiotherapy.asn.au/AJP/vol_53/3/AustJPhysiotherv53i3Morrow.pdf
• Manual hyperinflation to 30 cmH2O applied for 30 seconds after suctioning infants and children

Mörelius E, Angelhoff C, Eriksson J, Olhage E (2012) Time of initiation of skin-to-skin contact in extremely preterm infants in Sweden. Acta Paediat, 101, 1, 14–18

Mundy CA (2010) Assessment of family needs in neonatal intensive care units. Am J Crit Care, 19, 2, 156-63
ajcc.aacnjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/19/2/156
• importance of assessing family needs rather than making assumptions.

Murthy BVS et al (1996) Endotracheal suctioning causes right upper lobe collapse in intubated children. Acta Paediatr, 85, 1422-5
• how to avoid causing atelectasis when suctioning children.

Naylor JM (2005) A clinical dilemma: to treat or not to treat in the presence of a pulmonary foreign body? Physiother Res Internat, 10, 4, 232–4
• bronchoscopy takes precedence over physiotherapy to remove a foreign body; physiotherapy may be dangerous before removal of the foreign body, but may be indicated after bronchoscopy if there is sputum retention.

Nursing Times (2005) Croup. Nurs Times, 101, 3, 30
• one page précis of symptoms, diagnosis and treatment

Oberwaldner B (2000) Physiotherapy for airway clearance in paediatrics. Eur Respir J. 15, 196-204

O’Sullivan EA, Curzon MEJ (1998) Drug treatments for asthma may cause erosive tooth damage (letter). BMJ, 317, 820

Perrotta C, Ortiz Z, Roqué i Figuls M (2007) Chest physiotherapy for acute bronchiolitis in paediatric patients between 0 and 24 months old. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1. Art. No.: CD004873. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004873.pub3.
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD004873/frame.html
• vibration and percussion does not reduce length of hospital stay, oxygen requirements, or improve the severity clinical score in spontaneously-breathing infants with acute bronchiolitis.

Peters JWB, Koot HM, de Boer JB (2003) Major surgery within the first 3 months of life and subsequent biobehavioral pain. Pediatrics, 111, 129-35

Pletcher BA, Turcios NL (2012) Pulmonary complications of genetic disorders. Paed Respir Rev, 13, 1, 2-9
Plioplys AV (2003) Pulmonary vest therapy to prevent pneumonias in quadriplegic cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehab, 84, E6
• vest therapy reduced pneumonias in children with quadriplegic cerebral palsy

Phatak RS (2008) Heliox with inhaled nitric oxide: a novel strategy for severe localized interstitial pulmonary emphysema in preterm neonatal ventilation. Respir Care, 53, 12, 1731-8

Potijk MR (2012) Higher rates of behavioural and emotional problems at preschool age in children born moderately preterm. Arch Dis Child, 97, 112-117

Ralafox M (2000) Diagnostic value of tachypnoea in pneumonia defined radiologically. Arch Dis Child, 82, 41-45
• rapid breathing may be the only sign of pneumonia

Randolph AG (2002) Effect of mechanical ventilator weaning protocols on respiratory outcomes in infants and children. J Am Med A, 288, 2561-8

Rainer C, Gardetto A et al (2003) Breast deformity in adolescence as a result of pneumothorax drainage during neonatal intensive care. Pediatrics, 111, 80-86

Ralser E, Mueller W, Haberland C (2012) Rehospitalization in the first 2 years of life in children born preterm. Acta Paediat, 101, 1, e1–e5

Rees G et al (2004) Psychiatric outcome following PICU admission. Int Care Med, 30, 1607-14
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• PTSD significantly more common in families where a child has been admitted to PICU

Ridling DA (2003) Endotracheal suctioning with or without instillation of isotonic sodium chloride solution in critically ill children. Am J Crit Care, 12, 212-19
• saline instillation tends to increase desaturation after suctioning.

Rodrigues AJ, Scussiatto EA, Jacomelli M (2012) Bronchoscopic techniques for removal of foreign bodies in children's airways. Pediatr Pulmonol, 47, 1, 59–62

Quinn MW, de Boer RC, Ansari N (1998) Stress response and mode of ventilation in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed, 78, F195-8
• stress response reduced if a mode of ventilation is used that allows the infant to trigger their own breaths

Salvo V, Zimmermann LJ, Gavilanes AW (2012) First intention high-frequency oscillatory and conventional mechanical ventilation in premature infants without antenatal glucocorticoid prophylaxis. Ped Crit Care Med, 13, 1, 72-9; doi: 10.1097/PCC.0b013e318219673e
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• HFO reduces the need for ventilatory support and reintubation in premature babies

Schechter MS (2007) Airway clearance applications in infants and children. Respir Care, 52, 10, 1382–1390
www.rcjournal.com/contents/10.07/10.07.1382.pdf

Schulz G, Keller E (2003) Slow blood sampling from an umbilical artery catheter prevents a decrease in cerebral oxygenation in the preterm newborn. Pediatrics, 111, e73-e76

Sharek PJ et al (2007) Effect of a rapid response team on hospital-wide mortality and code rates outside the ICU in a children’s hospital. JAMA, 298, 19, 2267-74
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• outreach team reduces mortality in children

Shields MD, Bush A, Everard ML (2008) Recommendations for the assessment and management of cough in children. Thorax, 63, 1-15
www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/Portals/0/Clinical%20Information/Cough/Guidelines/cough_in_children.pdf

Simons SHP (2005) Randomised controlled trial evaluating effects of morphine on plasma adrenaline/noradrenaline concentrations in newborns. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed, 90, F36-F40
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• ventilated neonates require continuous morphine infusion

Singer AJ, Gulla J, Thode HC (2002) Parents and practitioners are poor judges of young children's pain severity. Acad Emerg Med, 9, 6, 609-12
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• lack of agreement between children, parents, and practitioners

Soto-Martinez M (2010) What goes around, comes around: childhood influences on later lung health? Relationship between environmental exposures in children and adult lung disease. Chr Respir Dis, 7, 173-186

Ståhle-Öberg L (2009) Parents’ experience of pain in children with cerebral palsy and multiple disabilities. Adv Physiother, 11, 137 – 144

Suominen PK, Vallila NH, Hartikainen LM (2010) Outcome of drowned hypothermic children with cardiac arrest treated with cardiopulmonary bypass. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 54, 10, 1276–81
• rewarming by cardiopulmonary bypass warms the core of the body first while supporting the patient's circulation and oxygenation until normal body temperature is achieved

SUPPORT Trial (2010) Target ranges of oxygen saturation in extremely preterm infants. N Engl J Med, 362, 1959-69
• low SaO2 helps prevent retinopathy of prematurity but increases mortality, one additional death being avoided for approximately every two cases of severe retinopathy prevented

Sweeney JK, Heriza CB, Blanchard Y (2009) Neonatal physical therapy. Part I: clinical competencies and neonatal intensive care unit clinical training models. Ped Phys Ther, 21, 4, 296-307
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• advanced, competency-based training is required in neonatology.
Thomson AH, Hull J, Kumar MR, Wallis C, Balfour-Lynn IM (2002) Randomised trial of intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax, 57, 343–7
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To T, Guan J, Wang C (2012) Is large birth weight associated with asthma risk in early childhood? Arch Dis Child, 97, 169-171

Tripathi VN, Misra S (2001) Mechanical ventilation in pediatric practice. Indian Pediatrics, 38, 147-156
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• terminology, modes, complications, drugs

Tusman G, Bohm SH, Tempra A et al (2003) Effects of recruitment maneuver on atelectasis in anesthetized children. Anesthiol, 98, 14-22
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• atelectasis was reduced in children given manual hyperinflation with peak pressure of 40 cmH2O and PEEP of 15 cmH2O for 10 breaths

Van Gent R, Brackel HJL, de Vroede M (2002) Lung function abnormalities in children with type 1 diabetes. Respir Med, 96, 12, 976-8

Vet NJ et al (2012) Daily interruption of sedation in critically ill children. Ped Crit Care Med, 13, 1, 122 (letter)

Vrijlandt EJLE (2006) Lung function and exercise capacity in young adults born prematurely. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 173, 890-96
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• young people of preterm birth show airway obstruction and lower diffusion capacity

Wallis C, Prasad A (1999) Who needs chest physiotherapy? Moving from anecdote to evidence. Arch Dis Child, 80, 393-7
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• evidence for physiotherapy, mainly in relation to sputum clearance

Walsh BK, Brooks TM, Grenier BM (2009) Oxygen therapy in the neonatal care environment. Respir Care, 54, 9, 1193-202

Weiner DL (2000) Preliminary assessment of inhaled nitric oxide for acute vaso-occlusive crisis in pediatric patients with sickle cell disease. JAMA, 289, 1136-42
• inhaled nitric oxide may be beneficial for acute vaso-occlusive crisis

Weir EC, Burrow JG, Bell F (2000) Existing methods of pain evaluation in children. Br J Ther Rehab, 7, 418-23

Wells DA, Gillies D, Fitzgerald DA. Positioning for acute respiratory distress in hospitalised infants and children. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD003645. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003645.pub2
www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD003645/frame.html
• prone improves oxygenation in acute respiratory distress

Wilson G, Hughes G, Rennie J, Morley C (1991) Evaluation of two endotracheal suction regimes in babies ventilated for respiratory distress syndrome. Early Hum Dev, 25, 87-90
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=1860433&dopt=Abstract
• in RDS, 12-hourly suction is adequate if no indications for more frequent suction are apparent

Wong I, Fok RF (2001) Resolution of pulmonary overinflation in an extremely low-birth-weight infant utilizing a ‘lung-squeezing’ technique. HK Physiother J, 19, 17-20
• hyperinflation can be resolved by manually squeezing the area, without vibration and not in synchrony with the breathing pattern, followed by a slow release

Young KD (2005) Pediatric procedural pain. Ann Emerg Med, 45, 160-71
www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WB0-4F490FX-3&_user=10&_handle=V-WA-A-W-CU-MsSAYWW-UUW-U-AAAAEAADWA-AAUEVEWCWA-EVVYDAZEY-CU-U&_fmt=summary&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2005&_rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236696%232005%23999549997%23573878!&_cdi=6696&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=bac364f355c5f6445c3ae766a112f222
• inadequate relief of pain and distress during childhood may have long-term negative effects on future pain tolerance



AACN = American Association of Critical-Care Nurses
AARC = American Association for Respiratory Care
ACPRC = Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in Respiratory Care
BTS = British Thoracic Society
CPAP = continuous positive airways pressure
ICP = intracranial pressure
JAMA = Journal of American Medical Association
LRTI = lower respiratory tract infection
PEP = positive expiratory pressure
PICU = paediatric intensive care unit
PTSD = post-traumatic stress disorder
RDS = respiratory distress syndrome
BTS = British Thoracic Society