(for exercise testing, see ‘Exercise’)

To convert: kPa ↔ mmHg - www.convertunits.com/from/mm%20Hg/to/kPa


BREATH SOUNDS
www.cvmbs.colostate.edu/clinsci/callan/breath_sounds.htm

ACID-BASE TUTORIAL
www.acid-base.com/terminology.php#SBic2

RADIOLOGY TUTORIAL
www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/rad/cxr/postquestions/posttest.html

AARC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE: Pulse oximetry
www.rcjournal.com/online_resources/cpgs/pulsecpg.html
• exercise testing for evaluation of hypoxaemia and/or desaturation


Ahlers SJGM (2008) Comparison of different pain scoring systems in critically ill patients in a general ICU. Crit. Care, 12, R15
ccforum.com/content/12/1/R15
• comparison of the visual analogue scale, numerical scale and behavioural scale

Baldwin CE, Paratz JD, Bersten AD (2013) Muscle strength assessment in critically ill patients with handheld dynamometry: an investigation of reliability, minimal detectable change, and time to peak force generation. J Crit Care, 1, 77-86. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2012.03.001

Bausewein C (2006) Measurement of breathlessness in advanced disease: a systematic review. Respir Med 101, 399-410

Benton D (2011) Dehydration influences mood and cognition: a plausible hypothesis? Nutrients, 3, 5, 555–73
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3257694/?tool=pmcentrez

Birring SS, Prudon B, Carr AJ et al (2003) Development of a symptom specific health status measure for patients with chronic cough. Thorax, 58, 339-43.
thorax.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/58/4/339?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&volume=58&firstpage=339&resourcetype=HWCIT

Blann A (2006) Routine Blood Tests Explained. A Guide for Nurses and Allied Health Professional. M & K Update, Cumbria

Bruusgaard D, Tschudi-Madsen H, Ihlebæk C et al (2012) Symptom load and functional status: results from the Ullensaker population study. BMC Public Health, 12: 1085. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-1085

Chanques G et al (2006) Impact of systematic evaluation of pain and agitation in an intensive care unit. Crit Care Med, 34, 6, 1691-9
• accurate assessment of pain and agitation reduces duration of mechanical ventilation and hospital-acquired infections

Connolly MA (2001) Black, white and shades of gray: common abnormalities in chest radiographs. AACN Clin Issues, 12, 259-69
www.aacnclinicalissues.com/pt/re/aacn/abstract.00044067-200105000-00009.htm;jsessionid=D48oT8PdT9msfbUhDRFB24d3SZbnLeBWhzqhIKW51KXDWJZeGiVZ!-477899252!-949856144!9001!-1?index=1&database=ppvovft&results=1&count=10&searchid=1&nav=search (abstract only)
• systematic examination, common abnormalities, examples

Cowley NJ, Owen A (2013) Interpreting arterial blood gas results. BMJ, 346, f16

Cuthbertson BH (2008) Optimising early warning scoring systems. Resuscitation, 77, 153-4
• review of two papers on the effectiveness of early warning scoring systems

Davis AHT (2007) Reliability and validity of the Exercise Self-regulatory Efficacy Scale for individuals with COPD. Heart Lung, 36, 3, 205-16

Desborough MJ, Keeling DM (2013) How to interpret a prolonged prothrombin time or activated partial thromboplastin time. Br J Hosp Med, 74, 1, C10-C12

Dick E (2000) Chest x rays made easy. Student BMJ, 89, 444-6

Garcia-Pachon E (2002) Paradoxical movement of the lateral rib margin (Hoover sign) for detecting obstructive airway disease. Chest, 122, 651-5
• Hoover sign is easy to recognise and useful for detecting obstructive airway disease

Greco FA (2004) Interpretation of breath sounds. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 169, 1260 (letter)
ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/169/11/1260

Guenther U, Weykam J, Andorfer U (2012) Implications of objective vs subjective delirium assessment in surgical intensive care patients. Am J Crit Care, 21, e12-e20; doi:10.4037/ajcc2012735

Gurudatt CL (2012) Sedation in Intensive Care Unit patients: assessment and awareness. Indian J Anaesth, 55, 6, 553–555. doi: 10.4103/0019-5049.90607
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3249859/

Haque RA, Usmani OS, Barnes PJ (2005) Chronic Idiopathic cough: a discrete clinical entity? Chest, 127, 1710-13
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15888850&dopt=Abstract
• chronic cough may be initiated by an upper respiratory tract infection which sensitizes the cough reflex

Hacievliyagil SS, Gunen H (2006) Association between cytokines and induced sputum and severity of COPD. Respir Med, 100, 5, 846-54
www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%237138%232006%23998999994%23620763%23FLA%23&_cdi=7138&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=6cd0ecd66e2af952b4fbc3d5d2465480
• higher levels of cytokines in induced sputum indicate severity of COPD during exacerbation

Ho JE, Bittner V (2010) Usefulness of heart rate at rest as a predictor of mortality, hospitalization for heart failure, myocardial infarction, and stroke in patients with stable coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol, 105, 7, 905-911
www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%234876%232010%23998949992%231814686%23FLA%23&_cdi=4876&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=6ffb82fc4d3542fc494e4c1bdd8648f0
• for people with CVD, HR at rest of ≥70 beats/min is associated with 40% increase in mortality and more than twice the risk of HF hospitalisation, but not the risk of stroke or MI.

Ikematsu Y (2007) Incidence and characteristics of dysphoria in patients with cardiac tamponade. Heart Lung, 36, 6, 440-9.

Inoue H (2009) A new breath-holding test may noninvasively reveal early lung abnormalities caused by smoking and/or obesity. Chest, 136, 2, 545-553
chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/136/2/545.ful
• the fall in SaO2 during a 20-second breath-hold at resting end-exhalation reveals early lung abnormalities

Jain SN (2011) A pictorial essay: Radiology of lines and tubes in the intensive care unit. Indian J Radiol Imaging, 21, 3, 182–190.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3190489/?tool=pmcentrez

Jones AYM, Jones RD (2000) The effect on sound generation of varying both gas flow rate and the viscosity of sputum-like gel. Lung, 178, 31-40
• absence of crackles does not always indicate absence of secretions

Karbing DS, Kjaergaard S, Smith BW, Espersen K, Allerød C, Andreassen S, Rees SE (2007) Variation in the PaO2/FiO2 ratio with FiO2: mathematical and experimental description, and clinical relevance. Crit Care, 11:R118
ccforum.com/content/11/6/R118
• PaO2/FiO2 quantifies effects of treatment
• PaO2/FiO2 varies with both FiO2 and SaO2
• classifies patients' gas exchange status, including definitions of ALI (27 kPa ≤ PaO2/FiO2 < 40 kPa) and ARDS (PaO2/FiO2 < 27 kPa)
(useful commentary on how this measurement can achieve a balance between accuracy and feasibility is on ccforum.com/content/11/6/182)

Karen KG, Higgins TL (2005) New-generation pulse oximetry in the care of critically ill patients. Am J Crit Care, 14, 26-37

Kassean HK, Jagoo ZB (2005) Managing change in the nursing handover from traditional to bedside handover. BMC Nurs, 4,1
www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6955/4/1/abstract
• A handover at the bedside, rather than at the nurses’ station, provides greater satisfaction for patient and staff

Kvale A, Johnsen TB, Ljunggren AD (2002) Examination of respiration in patients with long-lasting musculoskeletal pain. Advances Physiother, 4, 169-81
• fascinating insight into the effect of pain on breathing

Lange NE (2009) Spirometry: don't blow it! Chest, 136, 2, 608-614
chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/136/2/608.full
• everything you need to know about the practicalities of spirometry.

Lichtenstein DL (2003) The "lung pulse": an early ultrasound sign of complete atelectasis. Int Care Med, 29, 12, 2187-92

Lou J-S (2010) Assessment and management of fatigue in neuromuscular disease. Am J Hospice Palliat Med, 27, 2, 145—57

Malaguti C (2009) Reliability of chest wall mobility and its correlation with pulmonary function in patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Respir Care, 54, 12, 1703-11
www.rcjournal.com/contents/12.09/12.09.1703.pdf

Manali ED (2010) MRC chronic dyspnea scale: Relationships with cardiopulmonary exercise testing and 6-minute walk test in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients. BMC Pulm Med, 10, 32

Martin GS (2002) Findings on the portable chest radiograph correlate with fluid balance in critically ill patients. Chest, 122, 2087-95.

Martini Z (2005) Independent contributions of hypothermia and acidosis to coagulopathy in swine. J Trauma-Injury Inf Crit Care, 58,1002-10
www.jtrauma.com/pt/re/jtrauma/abstract.00005373-200505000-00020.htm;jsessionid=CO5EKlmYRMKPcbJGGy72sAD2B6RZWJFeF315LiHLGi1QDiEb20Jw!1707623050!-949856031!9001!-1
• coagulopathy occurs frequently in the presence of acidosis and hypothermia.

McKenzie CA, McKinnon W et al (2005) Differentiating midazolam over-sedation from neurological damage in the intensive care unit. Crit Care, 9, R32-R36
• method to distinguish over-sedation from neurological damage

McGarvey LPA, Ing AJ (2004) Idiopathic cough, prevalence and underlying mechanisms. Pulm Pharmacol Ther, 17, 435-9
www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WPM-4DS6TVN-2&_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2004&_alid=350471042&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6994&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=5a528a631f39b35263f5eb6f917e6dd2

Murphy R (2006) Capillary blood gases in acute exacerbations of COPD. Respir Med, 100, 4, 682-686 www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%237138%232006%23998999995%23617521%23FLA%23&_cdi=7138&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=18ccd676b7f198e85937012ad7bac39d
• ear capillary blood gases accurately assess PCO2, H+ and HCO3− , and combined with continuous pulse oximetry can be used as an alternative to ABGs in patients with exacerbation of COPD.

Oikonomou A, Prassopoulos P (2013) Mimics in chest disease: interstitial opacities. Insights Imaging, 4, 1, 9–27. doi: 10.1007/s13244-012-0207-7
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3579994/

Pasterkamp (1997) Respiratory sounds. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 156, 974-87

Piirill¨ (1992) Changes in crackle characteristics during the clinical course of pneumonia. Chest, 102, 176-83.

Polly L (2008) Impact of cough across different chronic respiratory diseases: comparison of two cough-specific health-related quality of life questionnaires. Chest, 134, 2, 295-302
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18071022

Rabitsch W (2004) Evaluation of an end-tidal portable ETCO2 colorimetric breath indicator. Am J Emerg Med, 22, 4-9
• breath indicator between the airway and ventilator tubing changes colour according to ETCO2

Ramsey DJC (2004) Assessment and management of dysphagia. Hosp Med, 65, 5, 274-9

Rossi SE (2005) Tree-in-bud pattern at thin-section CT of the lungs. RadioGraphic, 25, 789-801
radiographics.rsnajnls.org/cgi/content/full/25/3/789
• description of small nodules of soft-tissue attenuation shown on CT which indicate various conditions such as infection, obliterative bronchiolitis, aspiration or inhalation of foreign substances, immunologic disorders or connective tissue disorders

Scherer S, Hammerich AS (2008) Outcomes in cardiopulmonary physical therapy:
Acute Care Index of Function. Cardiopulm Phys Ther J, 19, 3, 95-7
cpptjournal.org/pdfs/members/fulltext/2008/september/september-article4.pdf
• incorporates mental status, bed mobility, transfers, and mobility

Schmidt M (2011) Dyspnea in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Crit Care Med, May.
• SOB is frequent, intense, strongly associated with anxiety, sensitive to ventilator settings and associated with delayed extubation

Silversides JA, Quinn LD, Parker MJ (2010) Is the cause of hypernatraemia in critically ill patients more obvious than we think? Anaesthesia, 65, 1, 87-88 (letter)

Srivastava R (2011) Complicated lives – taking the social history. N Engl J Med, 365, 7, 587-9.

Stocchetti N, Roux PL, Vespa P (2013) Clinical review: neuromonitoring - an update. Crit Care, 17:201 doi:10.1186/cc11513

Stringfield YN (1993) Acidosis, alkalosis and ABG's. Am J Nurs, 93, 11, 43-4.

Stroud AE et al (2002) Inter- and intra-rater reliability of cervical auscultation to detect aspiration in patients with dysphagia. Clin Rehab, 16, 640-5
• identifying aspiration by interpretation of swallow sounds

Tantucci C, Pinelli V, Cossi S et al (2006) Reference values and repeatability of inspiratory capacity for men and women ages 65-85. Respir Med, 100, 5, 871-7
• inspiratory capacity may signal the occurrence of dynamic hyperinflation at rest or o exercise

Tomasi CD et al (2012) Comparison of CAM-ICU and ICDSC for the detection of delirium in critically ill patients focusing on relevant clinical outcomes. J Crit Care, 27, 1, 212-217

Van de Louw A et al (2001) Accuracy of pulse oximetry in the ICU. Int Care Med, 27, 1606-13
• SpO2 above 94% is necessary to ensure SaO2 of 90%

Vincent JL (2008) Understanding cardiac output. Crit Care, 12, 4, 174
ccforum.com/content/12/4/174
• succinct explanation of the four determinants of cardiac output and how cardiac output is affected by different circumstances

Voepel-Lewis T (2010) Reliability and validity of the face, legs, activity, cry, consolability behavioral tool in assessing acute pain in critically ill patients. Am J Crit Care, 19, 1, 55-61
• behavioural pain scale

Walshe BK, Crotwell DN, Restrepo RD (2011) Capnography/capnometry during mechanical ventilation. Respir Care, 56, 4, 503–9
www.rcjournal.com/cpgs/pdf/04.11.0503.pdf
• AARC Guidelines

Williams AJ (1998) Assessing and interpreting arterial blood gases and acid-base balance. Br Med J, 317, 1213-6
bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/317/7167/1213?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1097998442127_8760&stored_search=&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&volume=317&firstpage=1213&resourcetype=1

Xu T, Ducote JL, Wong JT et al (2012) Dynamic dual-energy chest radiography: a potential tool for lung tissue motion monitoring and kinetic study. Phys Med Biol, 56, 4, 1191–1205
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3164987/?tool=pmcentrez

Zavorsky GS, Wilson B (2010) Pulmonary diffusion and aerobic capacity : is there a relation? Does obesity matter? Act Physiol, 198, 499-507





6MD = 6-minute distance
AARC = American Association for Respiratory Care
ACPRC = Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in Respiratory Care
CVD = cardiovascular disease
ETCO2 = end-tidal CO2 monitor
HCO3− = bicarbonate ion concentration
HF = heart failure
HR = heart rate
IPPV = intermittent positive pressure ventilation
JAMA = Journal of American Medical Association
MI = myocardial infarction
SOB = shortness of breath
SpO2 = saturation of haemoglobin taken by pulse oximeter
VO2 max = maximum oxygen consumption